12. Literary Introduction to Beowulf

Genre

Beowulf is considered an epic for many obvious reasons. However, one reason not to consider it an epic is that Beowulf has no specific tragic flaw which precipitates his downfall. He is an excellent, deeply religious, pagan warrior who does precisely what his culture expects of him-including seeking glory and protecting his people. Another reason is that it is longer than an epic, having three main episodes over a period of 50 years, rather than one event as is usual.

On the other hand, there is Beowulf as the epic hero who represents his culture and is noble, has considerable military prowess, and undying virtue. Several other elements of the epic poem are also evident in the poem: the lofty tone and style, the lengthy narrative, the genealogies, the involvement of the supernatural (in the form of the monsters, dragons, and giants), the invocation, and the voyage across the sea. Beowulf’s battle in the dragon’s underground lair may or may not be considered the obligatory trip to the underworld as found in the epic poem. While there are epic battles, they are not between universal champions, but rather between good and evil.

Themes

Fortitude and Wisdom

For the narrator and characters, wisdom and fortitude represent an ideal to which every man aspires and every society needs. Physical bravery was most appreciated when accompanied by understanding and discernment. This discernment was not merely practical, it was supported by a larger spiritual understanding of God and the human condition. This is the point of Hrothgar’s “sermon” in lines 1700-82.

The Danish coast guard, for example, (lines 229-300) respects and demonstrates these qualities in his treatment of Beowulf and his men. Beowulf is a fearless master of hand-to-hand combat. He demonstrates discernment in his understanding and treatment of men and women and in his sense of God. Even if his decision to fight the dragon is questionable, the narrator underlines the reasonableness of its basis. Beowulf’s uncle Hygelac, on the other hand, while having great courage, lacks wisdom and falls victim to his own folly and the greater military resources of the Franks.

Glory and Treasure

The characters in Beowulf, and its original audience, wanted glory, the immortality of good fame, to remain alive in human memory across time and space. Glory in Beowulf is usually connected with heroism in battle or with generosity. Treasure was the outward manifestation of glory. Men were anxious to receive gifts of fine weapons, armor, and jewelry-and, much as today’s athletes look on their salaries relative to those of other athletes, warriors compared their gifts with those given to others. Such visible wealth advertised a warrior’s worth and a people’s strength.

Devout Christians, however, would have tried to seek the glory which God gave to those who did his will, the imperishable treasure laid up in the heaven of the Gospels. They would seek to do their duty, and more than their duty, purely for the love of God and neighbor rather than for earthly fame. Earthly treasure was to be used to do good, not as a display.

The narrator’s and the characters’ view of glory is a point of contention among critics. Some commentators think that lofgeornost, “most desirous of praise,” the poem’s last word, which is applied to Beowulf, as well as Beowulf s own words to Hrothgar “Let him who can, gain good repute before death- that it is the finest thing afterwards for the lifeless man” (lines 1384-89) reflect badly on Beowulf. It may not be so simple.

In the last lines of the poem (3180-82) the qualities for which Beowulf’s people praise him are not a warrior’s, but those of a kindly friend. He is, they say, “of all the kings of the world, the gentlest of men, the kindest and gentlest to his people, the most eager for glory.” Because of the qualities the Geats link with Beowulf’s eagerness for glory and fame, some readers believe that lofgeornost is specifically divine and not human.

Wyrd (fate) and Providence

In lines 1055-58 the narrator says Grendel would have killed more men if he could “except God in his wisdom and the man’s (Beowulf’s) courageous spirit had withstood that wyrd and him. The lord ruled all the human race as he still does.”

Both the narrator and individual characters talk about both God’s providence and a concept the Anglo-Saxons called wyrd. Providence is the will of God moving in the affairs of men. It means that there is a plan and meaning behind what happens. It does not mean that men are coerced by God. Their wills are their own, but the ability to carry out their intentions is given by God.

Wyrd is usually translated as “fate.” Many critics have assumed that it means a blind force which predetermines the outcome of everything. There are one or two places in the poem where this may be its meaning. In others it is a word for “death”. In most cases wyrd appears to mean the normal or expected pattern of cause and effect.

Loyalty, Vengeance, and Feud

Loyalty is one of the greatest virtues in the world depicted in Beowulf. It is the glue holding Anglo-Saxon Society together, but it brought with it the darker duties of vengeance and feud.

Today injustice and victimization are often presented as lesser evils than “taking the law into your own hands,” but in Anglo-Saxon society order was maintained by just that, the concept that all free men had a duty to see justice done. It was a duty to punish the murderer of family, friends, lord, or servant. One deposed West Saxon king was killed by a swineherd in retribution for the king’s murder of his lord. It was possible to accept one’s guilt and pay compensation, the wergild, or “man-price.” The guilty person’s family or lord had a duty to see that it was paid. Christians were encouraged to offer and accept these fines, but no one was forced to. In some circumstances it was considered dishonorable to accept-if the killing was generally considered justified, for example.

Feuds were often the result of tit-for-tat vengeance. The feud is a constant unspoken theme in Beowulf since Anglo-Saxons understood conflict generally in terms of the feud.

In Beowulf Grendel is said to be feuding with God and with the Danes. To stress Grendel’s alienation from human society the poet writes that the Danes could not expect a “wergild” from him (lines 154- 58). When Grendel is killed, his mother comes to avenge his death. Hrethel, Beowulf’s grandfather, grieves bitterly because he cannot seek vengance for his eldest son’s accidental death. The presentation of the wars between the Geats and Swedes stress elements which recall the feud, particularly the killing of kings.

Evil and the Monsters

The monsters in Beowulf are thought by some to represent the evil of human suffering caused by natural disasters. This is not an entirely adequate explanation. Grendel and his mother are essentially human even if they are monstrous. Although it does not excuse them, each monster’s predatory activities are motivated first by human actions. Grendel’s envy is aroused by the sounds of human joy. The dragon is only following its nature when it enters the open barrow and nests on the hidden treasure. The dragon is disturbed by a thief who was himself driven by necessity.

Hrothgar locates evil within man himself. In lines 1700-82 he sums up all that can go wrong when a warrior forgets that God is the source of everything that he has and is. Beginning with the example of Heremod, a Danish king turned tyrant, Hrothgar asks the young Beowulf to remember the source of his strength and to be wary of the greed and hunger for power that destroys the generosity that binds society together. Finally he begs him to recall that good fortune and life itself are transitory; sickness, the sea, the sword, or old age will eventually take his strength and life. Beowulf takes Hrothgar’s word to heart. He refuses to accept the kingship of his people until there is no other choice. He dies thanking God that he was able to win a treasure that will be of use to his people.

Structure

Narrative Voice

Beowulf has an omniscient (“all-knowing”) narrator. The narrative voice comments on the character’s actions, and knows and is able to report on what they think. The narrator is aware of things-for example, the curse on the dragon’s treasure (lines 3066-75)-that are not known to the epic’s characters. Beowulf shares this omniscient narration with other epics, such as the Iliad, the Odyssey, and the Aeneid, but remains subtly different. The narrator of Beowulf makes an explicit connection with the audience, acknowledging a shared background of cultural knowledge, in the opening lines of the poem: “We have heard of the thriving of the throne of Denmark” (emphasis added). The narrator’s voice is also intimately connected with those of the characters. Both use narratives in the same way, to point a moral or to project future events.

Alliterative Verse

Old English poetry is different from that of most English verse written since the Norman Conquest. It is based on a pattern of stressed syllables linked by alliteration (the repetition of identical initial consonant sounds or any vowel sounds appearing close together) across a line of verse divided by a distinct pause in the middle.

Old English Verse follows these basic rules:

1. The basic unit is the half line (hemstich ). Each half line has two stressed syllables and up to six unstressed syllables.

2. In a full line the two half lines are divided by a pause (called a caesura). They are joined by alliteration, the repetition of the initial consonants or vowels of stressed syllables, as: Anna angry, Arthur bold. Two or three (never all four) stressed syllables alliterate with one another. They may be the first and/or the second and the third. The third stressed syllable must alliterate. The fourth stressed syllable does not.

Episodes and Digressions

One of the most characteristic features of Beowulf is the use of shorter narratives embedded in the main action of the poem. They are not part of the main narrative, but they can be part of its past or present. These narratives can be divided into two types, episodes and digressions. An episode is a narrative which is complete in itself, but merged one way or another into the main narrative. An example is the Finnsburg Tale (lines 1063-1159a), which is sung during the celebration after Beowulf kills Grendel’s mother. A digression is much shorter, allusive rather than entire and complete, and it breaks the flow of the main narrative. Episodes and digressions often illustrate good or bad conduct or suggest to the audience a particular way of looking at the main action.

Kennings

The kenning, is a formalized compound metaphor : isern-scur (“iron shower”) for a flight of arrows; hildegicelum (“battle-icicle”) for sword.

(“Beowulf: Style” Epics for Students. Ed. Marie Rose Napierkowski. Vol. 1.Detroit: Gale, 1998. eNotes.com. January 2006 25July 2006.

<http://www.enotes.com/beowulf/80097)

At the second feast, poetry is sung; each poem seems to have a specific moral for the listeners, rather than just entertainment. What are the lessons inherent in the songs of Siegmund and Finn?

Are women in this poem active equals of the men? Or are they passive victims of the men? The role of the women in Beowulf is not a stereotyped one of passive homemaker, but rather one having freedom of choice, range of activity, and room for personal growth and development, such as is reflected in Anglo-Saxon England of the time.

Why do you think Beowulf goes through the trouble of bringing Grendel’s head to Hrothgar after he’d already apologized for not having it at the time he killed Grendel and Hrothgar seemingly accepted the lack of a corpse?

Beowulf died as he chose-in the fight with the dragon-yet Wiglaf seems to question if this was a wise decision, since the Geats are left leaderless and in danger of being attacked. Using evidence from the poem, do you agree with Wiglaf that Beowulf should have left the dragon alone?

Seven of the noblest Geats gather what they can of the treasure and place it on Beowulf’s funeral pyre. What was the motive behind this action, since their leader had died in order to obtain that treasure for them?

Explore the possible reasons the dying Beowulf asks Wiglaf to bring him some of the dragon’s treasures. Include in your discussion the custom of keeping a “souvenir” from a successful battle, and why Beowulf may have wanted to be able to give Wiglaf some of the treasure as a memento.